Ecosystem services were classified according to the UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA - EA), which comprises three categories of ecosystem service: provisioning services (i.e., those related to the supply of food, fibre, fuel and water); regulating and maintenance services (i.e., those related to activities of filtration, purification, regulation and maintenance of air, water, soil, habitat and climate); and cultural services (i.e., the experiential and non-material services related to the perceived or realized qualities of ecosystems whose existence and functioning enables a range of cultural benefits to be derived by individuals).
Air filtration services
Air filtration services are the ecosystem contributions to the filtering of air-borne pollutants through the deposition, uptake, fixing and storage of pollutants by ecosystem components, particularly plants, that mitigates the harmful effects of the pollutants. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service.
Biological control services
Pest control services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the incidence of species that may prevent or reduce the effects of pests on biomass production processes or other economic and human activity. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. Disease control services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the incidence of species that may prevent or reduce the effects of species on human health. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service
Biomass provisioning services
Biomass provisioning services include the ecosystem contributions to the growth of the following: cultivated plants that are harvested by economic units for various uses including food and fibre production, fodder and energy; grazed biomass that is an input to the growth of cultivated livestock; cultivated livestock and livestock products (e.g., meat, milk, eggs, wool, leather); animals and plants (e.g. fish, shellfish, seaweed) in aquaculture facilities that are harvested for various uses; trees and other woody biomass in both cultivated (plantation) and uncultivated production contexts that are harvested for various uses including timber production and energy; fish and other aquatic biomass that are captured in uncultivated production contexts for various uses; wild animals, plants and other biomass that are captured and harvested in uncultivated production contexts for various uses. Biomass provisioning services are final ecosystem services (except the grazed biomass provisioning services, which may also be an intermediate service to livestock provisioning services).
Education, scientific and research services
Education, scientific and research services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that enable people to use the environment through intellectual interactions with the environment. This is a final ecosystem service.
Flood mitigation services
Coastal protection services are the ecosystem contributions of linear elements in the seascape, for instance coral reefs, sand banks, dunes or mangrove ecosystems along the shore, in protecting the shore and thus mitigating the impacts of tidal surges or storms on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service. River flood mitigation services are the ecosystem contributions of riparian vegetation which provides structure and a physical barrier to high water levels and thus mitigates the impacts of floods on local communities. River flood mitigation services will be supplied together with peak flow mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. This is a final ecosystem service.
Genetic material services
Genetic material services are the ecosystem contributions from all biota (including seed, spore or gamete production) that are used by economic units, for example (i) to develop new animal and plant breeds; (ii) in gene synthesis; or (iii) in product development directly using genetic material. This is most commonly recorded as an intermediate service to biomass provisioning.
Global climate regulation services
Global climate regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans that affect global climate through the accumulation and retention of carbon and other GHG (e.g., methane) in ecosystems and the ability of ecosystems to remove (sequester) carbon from the atmosphere. This is a final ecosystem service.
Local (micro and meso) climate regulation services
Local climate regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of ambient atmospheric conditions (including micro and mesoscale climates) through the presence of vegetation that improves the living conditions for people and supports economic production. Examples include the evaporative cooling provided by urban trees ('green space'), the role of urban water bodies ('blue space') and the contribution of trees in providing shade for humans and livestock. This may be a final or intermediate service.
Noise attenuation services
Noise attenuation services are the ecosystem contributions to the reduction in the impact of noise on people that mitigates its harmful or stressful effects. This is most commonly a final ecosystem service.
Nursery population and habitat maintenance services
Nursery population and habitat maintenance services are the ecosystem contributions necessary for sustaining populations of species that economic units ultimately use or enjoy either through the maintenance of habitats (e.g., for nurseries or migration) or the protection of natural gene pools. This service is an intermediate service and may input to a number of different final ecosystem services including biomass provision and recreation-related services.
Other provisioning services - Animal-based energy
Physical labour is provided by domesticated or commercial species, including oxen, horses, donkeys, goats and elephants. These can be grouped as draught animals, pack animals and mounts.
Other regulating and maintenance service - Dilution by atmosphere and ecosystems
Water, both fresh and saline, and the atmosphere can dilute the gases, fluids and solid waste produced by human activity.
Other regulating and maintenance service - Mediation of sensory impacts (other than noise)
Vegetation is the main (natural) barrier used to reduce light pollution and other sensory impacts, limiting the impact it can have on human health and the environment.
Pollination services
Pollination services are the ecosystem contributions by wild pollinators to the fertilization of crops that maintains or increases the abundance and/or diversity of other species that economic units use or enjoy. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service.
Rainfall pattern regulation services (at sub-continental scale)
Rainfall pattern regulation services are the ecosystem contributions of vegetation, in particular forests, in maintaining rainfall patterns through evapotranspiration at the sub-continental scale. Forests and other vegetation recycle moisture back to the atmosphere where it is available for the generation of rainfall. Rainfall in interior parts of continents fully depends upon this recycling. This may be a final or intermediate service.
Recreation-related services
Recreation-related services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that enable people to use and enjoy the environment through direct, in-situ, physical and experiential interactions with the environment. This includes services to both locals and non-locals (i.e. visitors, including tourists). Recreation-related services may also be supplied to those undertaking recreational fishing and hunting. This is a final ecosystem service.
Soil and sediment retention services
Soil erosion control services are the ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilising effects of vegetation, that reduce the loss of soil (and sediment) and support use of the environment (e.g., agricultural activity, water supply). This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service. Landslide mitigation services are the ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilising effects of vegetation, that mitigates or prevents potential damage to human health and safety and damaging effects to buildings and infrastructure that arise from the mass movement (wasting) of soil, rock and snow. This is a final ecosystem service.
Soil quality regulation services
Soil quality regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to the decomposition of organic and inorganic materials and to the fertility and characteristics of soils, e.g., for input to biomass production. This is most commonly recorded as an intermediate service.
Solid waste remediation
Solid waste remediation services are the ecosystem contributions to the transformation of organic or inorganic substances, through the action of micro-organisms, algae, plants and animals that mitigates their harmful effects. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate service.
Spiritual, artistic and symbolic services
Spiritual artistic and symbolic services are the ecosystem contributions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that are recognised by people for their cultural, historical, aesthetic, sacred or religious significance. These services may underpin people's cultural identity and may inspire people to express themselves through various artistic media. This is a final ecosystem service.
Storm mitigation services
Storm mitigation services are the ecosystem contributions of vegetation including linear elements, in mitigating the impacts of wind, sand and other storms (other than water related events) on local communities. This is a final ecosystem service.
Visual amenity services
Visual amenity services are the ecosystem contributions to local living conditions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems that provide sensory benefits, especially visual. This service combines with other ecosystem services, including recreation-related services and noise attenuation services to underpin amenity values. This is a final ecosystem service.
Water flow regulation services
Baseline flow maintenance services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water, and gradually release water during dry seasons or periods through evapotranspiration and hence secure a regular flow of water. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate ecosystem service. Peak flow mitigation services are the ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water, and hence mitigate the effects of flood and other extreme water-related events. Peak flow mitigation services will be supplied together with river flood mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. This is a final ecosystem service.
Water purification services
Water purification services are the ecosystem contributions to the restoration and maintenance of the chemical condition of surface water and groundwater bodies through the breakdown or removal of nutrients and other pollutants by ecosystem components that mitigate the harmful effects of the pollutants on human use or health. This may be recorded as a final or intermediate ecosystem service.
Water supply
Water supply services reflect the combined ecosystem contributions of water flow regulation, water purification, and other ecosystem services to the supply of water of appropriate quality to users for various uses including household consumption. This is a final ecosystem service.